Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) is one of the most common and challenging neurodevelopmental disorders of childhood. It is characterized by symptoms such as motor restlessness, excessive talkativeness, inattention, impulsive behaviors, and difficulty following instructions. According to the American Psychiatric Association (2022), approximately 5% of school-aged children are affected by this disorder. These symptoms not only impair students’ academic performance but also disrupt classroom order, reduce social interactions, and create tension in family and educational relationships [1].

In response to this challenge, various therapeutic approaches such as pharmacotherapy, behavioral therapy, parent training, and cognitive-behavioral interventions have been developed, most of which primarily focus on biological and behavioral dimensions (Sharifi-Daramadi et al.,2019). Despite their relative effectiveness, in Islamic societies where religious and spiritual education constitutes an integral part of the cultural context, the application of Islamic teachings may serve as a complementary, indigenous, and culturally grounded approach to modifying children’s maladaptive behaviors.

Islamic psychology, as an integrative field combining religious teachings with scientific principles of psychology, seeks to explain and modify human behavior from an Islamic perspective by drawing on Qur’anic, Hadith-based, and educational concepts (Kajbaf,2017). By emphasizing concepts such as mindfulness (presence of heart), remembrance (dhikr), patience, discipline, self-control, compassion, responsibility, and emotional regulation, this approach demonstrates substantial potential for enhancing mental health and behavioral regulation. Studies such as Hosseini et al. (2018) have shown that teaching self-control skills using Qur’anic concepts can effectively reduce impulsive behaviors in children. Similarly, Rezaei (2021) reported the effectiveness of religious education programs in improving concentration and reducing anxiety among students.

Despite this potential, a review of the literature indicates that action research studies focusing on the practical application of Islamic psychological teachings in managing ADHD within educational settings are very limited (Mohammadi,2020; Noormoghadam,2023). This research gap highlights the need to integrate religious education with behavioral modification strategies through action research in order to develop indigenous and practically applicable models for schools.

Action research, as an applied method within educational environments, enables continuous behavioral analysis and gradual modification (Alavi,2020). The Contradiction Table Model, as a tool within this method, facilitates the identification of discrepancies between the current and desired states and supports the systematic design of corrective interventions. The novelty of the present study lies in its pioneering application of Islamic psychological teachings within an action research framework using the contradiction table model in a real educational setting.

 Purpose of the Study

The present study was designed and implemented to examine the effectiveness of Islamic psychological teachings in reducing ADHD symptoms in a fourth-grade elementary student. Using an action research methodology based on the contradiction table model, the study aims to improve concentration, reduce restlessness, enhance social interaction, and promote behavioral discipline through the implementation of Islamic educational interventions. It is expected that this approach will provide a practical, culturally grounded, and potentially generalizable model for managing behavioral disorders in Islamic educational contexts.

 Statement of the Problem

Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) is one of the most prevalent neurodevelopmental disorders in childhood, characterized by symptoms such as hyperactivity, inattention, impulsivity, and difficulty regulating emotions. This disorder, particularly in educational environments, leads to academic underachievement, reduced social interactions, classroom disruption, and increased family conflicts (American Psychiatric Association,2022; Barkley,2015). Although common treatments such as medication, behavioral therapy, and parent training have demonstrated effectiveness, these interventions primarily focus on biological and behavioral aspects and often face challenges such as medication dependence, high costs, and limited compatibility with cultural and value-based contexts (Sharifi-Daramadi et al.,2019).

In this context, Islamic psychology an integrative approach drawing on Qur’anic teachings, Hadith, and scientific psychological principles offers a unique capacity for modifying maladaptive behaviors. By emphasizing concepts such as remembrance (dhikr), mindfulness, patience, self-control, compassion, responsibility, and discipline, this approach seeks to explain and regulate human behavior through Islamic sources (Kajbaf,2017; Hosseini et al.,2018). These concepts align closely with key constructs in modern psychology, including self-regulation, emotional regulation, and moral development, and thus provide a strong foundation for effective educational interventions. Several studies on religious education and behavioral modification have demonstrated the effectiveness of Islamic concepts such as patience, remembrance, and responsibility in improving maladaptive behaviors among children (Rezaei,2021; Ghaffari & Moradi,2020). However, research specifically integrating Islamic psychology with action research to manage ADHD in real school environments remains scarce (Mohammadi,2020; Noormoghadam,2023). This gap underscores the need for field-based studies that design culturally grounded and practically applicable interventions.

In this study, Islamic psychology is operationalized through the instruction and practice of concepts such as anger control, patience, personal discipline, mindful attention (presence of heart), and responsibility, derived from Islamic texts and delivered through structured educational activities. ADHD symptoms are assessed using the Conners Parent Rating Scale Short Form and a teacher behavioral observation checklist, administered before and after the intervention.

The target population consists of a fourth-grade male student enrolled in a public elementary school in Birjand, whose ADHD symptoms were confirmed by the school counselor and a clinical psychologist. The student exhibits frequent restlessness, excessive talking, distractibility, and impulsive behaviors in classroom interactions and is at risk of social rejection and academic decline.

The theoretical framework of this study is grounded in principles of moral education within Islamic psychology and the theory of behavioral self-regulation. Within this framework, human behavior is influenced by internalized value systems, self-awareness, and the capacity to regulate emotions and motivations (Bandura,1991; Kajbaf,2017). This framework demonstrates strong applicability for enhancing self-control and emotional regulation in children, particularly within Islamic cultural contexts.

Accordingly, action research, as a situational and participatory methodology, enables continuous behavioral analysis and the implementation of corrective interventions within the authentic classroom setting. The contradiction table model further supports the systematic identification of gaps between current and desired behavioral states and provides an effective tool for designing and evaluating educational interventions (Alavi,2020).

The innovation of this study lies in its first-time application of Islamic psychological teachings through action research using the contradiction table model in a real educational environment to manage ADHD symptoms. This approach may offer a practical, culturally grounded, and adaptable model for modifying maladaptive behaviors in elementary schools with Islamic educational structures.

 Significance and Necessity of the Study

In recent years, Iran’s educational system has faced increasing behavioral challenges among students, particularly in relation to ADHD. Despite the implementation of school counseling programs and life-skills training, most existing interventions are based on general behavioral models or pharmacological treatments and pay limited attention to culturally and religiously grounded educational approaches (Sharifi-Daramadi et al.,2019). Moreover, many educational studies conducted in Iran remain theoretical and are rarely implemented in real school environments. Despite the growing importance of culturally grounded interventions, structured studies integrating Islamic psychological teachings with school-based interventions remain limited.

Islamic psychology, with its emphasis on patience, remembrance, self-control, discipline, and responsibility, offers substantial potential for modifying maladaptive behaviors (Kajbaf,2017). These concepts align with modern psychological theories of self-regulation and emotional regulation (Bandura,1991). Although this theoretical capacity has been widely discussed, it has rarely been operationalized within educational settings to manage behavioral disorders such as ADHD (Mohammadi,2020; Noormoghadam,2023).

The primary beneficiaries of this research include teachers, school counselors, parents, educational mentors, and curriculum designers who interact daily with students diagnosed with ADHD and play a critical role in behavioral guidance, emotional regulation, and mental health promotion. This study can serve as a practical guide for designing Islamic value-based educational interventions within school environments. The innovation of this study is evident at multiple levels: first, the practical integration of Islamic psychological teachings with action research in a real school setting; second, the use of the contradiction table model to analyze behavioral gaps and design targeted interventions; and third, the potential expansion of this model into educational tools such as instructional packages, teacher guides, curricula, and practice worksheets. Such integration of religious teachings with behavioral modification methods has gradually gained attention in the global literature (Koenig,2012; Pargament,2013), yet this study may represent one of the first structured and practical implementations within Iranian schools.

Furthermore, the action research approach and use of the contradiction table model allow for continuous evaluation, refinement, and optimization of the intervention over time. The effectiveness of the intervention is assessed using validated psychometric instruments, including the Conners Parent Rating Scale and behavioral observation checklists. This feature elevates the study from a purely theoretical level to a practical and implementable framework applicable in both home and school settings, enabling parents, teachers, and counselors to design individualized interventions based on precise behavioral analysis.

Beyond managing ADHD symptoms, this model has the potential to be extended to other common behavioral disorders in schools, such as anxiety, aggression, oppositional defiant behavior, and emotional regulation difficulties. It may also be adapted for family-level interventions and parent training programs. Ultimately, the implementation of this model may contribute to the development of indigenous knowledge in Islamic psychology and behavioral education within Iranian schools. This study is also aligned with the objectives of Iran’s Fundamental Transformation Document of Education, particularly in the areas of religious education, behavioral reform, and the promotion of students’ mental health. Although the study is limited to a single case within one school, and broader generalization requires further research across diverse samples and educational contexts, its findings may nonetheless inform culturally grounded educational policies and support the development of sustainable, value-based behavioral programs within the national education system.

Research Objectives

General Objectives:

ü  To examine the effectiveness of an educational intervention based on Islamic psychological teachings in reducing symptoms of Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) within the school environment.

ü  To design and implement an action research model based on the Contradiction Table Model for modifying students’ maladaptive behaviors through a cultural religious approach.

 Specific Objectives

Design and Implementation Objectives:

ü  To identify effective educational components within Islamic psychology related to emotional regulation and self-control.

ü  To design an educational intervention program grounded in Islamic teachings and the Contradiction Table Model.

ü  To implement the intervention in a real school setting through direct interaction with the student.

Evaluation and Analysis Objectives

ü  To analyze the behavioral status of a student with ADHD prior to the intervention using psychometric assessment tools.

ü  To evaluate the effectiveness of the intervention using the Conners Teacher Rating Scale and a behavioral observation checklist.

ü  To examine behavioral changes in the student following the intervention and analyze the behavioral modification process.

ü  To statistically compare pre and post-intervention behavioral scores in order to assess the level of effectiveness.

ü  To collect and analyze feedback from teachers and parents regarding the effectiveness and practical applicability of the intervention model.

ü  To examine the stability of behavioral changes during a follow-up period after the completion of the intervention.

ü  To assess the reliability and validity of the Conners Teacher Rating Scale and the behavioral observation checklist within the Iranian educational context.

ü  To compare the effectiveness of the Islamic educational model with conventional interventions (behavioral therapy and pharmacotherapy) in reducing ADHD symptoms using statistical analysis of outcomes.

Development and Generalizability Objectives

ü  To analyze the generalizability of the designed model to other behavioral disorders such as anxiety, aggression, and oppositional defiant disorder.

ü  To examine the feasibility of extending the model to the family level and parent training for managing maladaptive behaviors.

ü  To evaluate the alignment of the designed model with the objectives of Iran’s Fundamental Transformation Document of Education.

Research Questions

ü  To what extent is an educational intervention based on Islamic psychological teachings effective in reducing symptoms of ADHD?

ü  What impact does the implementation of an action research model based on the Contradiction Table have on modifying students’ maladaptive behaviors?

ü  What behavioral changes are observed in a student with ADHD after the intervention, based on results from the Conners questionnaire and behavioral observation checklist?

ü  Is there a statistically significant difference between the effectiveness of the Islamic educational intervention and conventional approaches such as pharmacotherapy or behavioral therapy in reducing ADHD symptoms?

ü  Which educational components within Islamic psychology are effective in emotional regulation and self-control?

ü  How can these components be applied within the school environment to modify maladaptive behaviors?

ü  Do the behavioral changes resulting from the intervention remain stable during a specified follow-up period (e.g., one or three months after implementation)?

ü  What feedback do teachers and parents provide regarding the effectiveness and practical applicability of the Islamic educational model based on questionnaire and interview data?

Policy and Development-Oriented Questions

ü  Does the designed model have the potential to be generalized to other behavioral disorders such as anxiety, aggression, and oppositional defiant disorder?

ü  Can the model be extended to the family level and used for parent training in managing children’s maladaptive behaviors?

ü  To what extent is the designed model aligned with the educational goals outlined in the Fundamental Transformation Document of Education, particularly in religious education, behavioral reform, mental health promotion, and cultural identity development?

Research Hypotheses

Main Hypotheses:

ü  An educational intervention based on Islamic psychological teachings significantly reduces ADHD symptoms in elementary school students.

ü  Implementing an action research model based on the Contradiction Table, focusing on cognitive, emotional, and behavioral modification, significantly improves maladaptive behaviors in students with ADHD.

ü  The assessment instruments used (the Conners Parent Rating Scale and the behavioral observation checklist) demonstrate adequate reliability and validity based on statistical indicators within the Iranian educational context.

ü  Behavioral changes resulting from the Islamic educational intervention remain statistically significant and stable during the follow-up period (e.g., one or three months after implementation).

ü  Teachers’ and parents’ feedback regarding the effectiveness, applicability, and acceptability of the Islamic educational model, based on questionnaire and interview data, is satisfactory and analytically meaningful.

ü  The Islamic educational model is generalizable to other childhood behavioral disorders such as anxiety, aggression, and oppositional defiant disorder.

ü  The designed model can be extended to the family level and applied in parent training for managing children’s maladaptive behaviors.

ü  The Islamic educational model is aligned with the objectives of the Fundamental Transformation Document of Education particularly in religious education, behavioral reform, mental health promotion, and cultural identity reinforcement and is practically implementable in school environments.

Scientific Foundations of the Hypotheses

These hypotheses are grounded in the following theoretical frameworks:

ü  Cognitive Behavioral Theory: Behavioral and cognitive modification through training in self-control and emotional regulation skills.

ü  Islamic Educational Theories: Emphasis on rational, moral, and spiritual education in behavioral reform.

ü  Action Research Model: Intervention based on observation, analysis, implementation, and feedback within a real school environment.

ü  Psychometric Foundations: Use of validated instruments with appropriate statistical indicators to assess intervention effectiveness.

Review of the Literature

Theoretical Background:

The present study is grounded in the integration of Islamic psychological concepts and scientific educational theories. Islamic psychology emphasizes rational, moral, and spiritual education as mechanisms for behavioral modification through strengthening willpower, intention, and self-control. According to Motahhari (2006), Islamic education aims at nurturing the divine nature (fitrah) of human beings particularly children by reinforcing intrinsic motivation and self-regulation.

This perspective aligns with cognitive behavioral theory, which conceptualizes maladaptive behaviors as the result of dysfunctional cognitions and poorly regulated emotions and emphasizes training in emotional regulation, problem-solving, and cognitive restructuring (Beck,1976). In the context of school-based education, action research serves as an applied and participatory approach that enables the design, implementation, and refinement of educational interventions in real-world settings. The Contradiction Table Model functions as an analytical tool for identifying and resolving cognitive, emotional, and behavioral conflicts in complex educational situations (Sohrabi,2019).

From a psychometric perspective, the use of validated instruments such as the Conners Rating Scale and behavioral observation checklists allows for accurate assessment of ADHD symptoms and behavioral changes, particularly when reliability indicators such as Cronbach’s alpha and factor analysis are employed (Conners,2008; Rezaei,2021).

 Empirical Background (Domestic and International)

Domestic Studies:

Recent Iranian studies have examined the effectiveness of Islamic psychology based educational interventions and cognitive behavioral approaches in modifying children’s maladaptive behaviors, particularly among those diagnosed with ADHD. These studies provide a scientific and culturally grounded foundation for designing effective school-based interventions.

Karimi (2022), in a quasi-experimental study involving 60 elementary school students and using an emotion regulation questionnaire, demonstrated that Islamic moral education significantly increased self-control, reduced aggression, and improved social interactions. These findings suggest that religious education can function as an effective mechanism for enhancing emotional and behavioral skills, particularly in Islamic educational environments, although further research is needed to generalize these results.

Ahmadi et al. (2020), in a quasi-experimental study with 45 male students diagnosed with ADHD using the Conners Scale, reported that cognitive behavioral skills training focusing on self-regulation and sustained attention significantly reduced impulsive behaviors and improved attentional control. However, the long term effects of such interventions require longitudinal follow up.

Sohrabi (2019), through a participatory action research study in an elementary school, examined the effectiveness of the Contradiction Table Model in modifying maladaptive behaviors. The results indicated that this model facilitates systematic identification of cognitive, emotional, and behavioral conflicts and supports the design of targeted interventions through active teacher and parent participation.

Rezaei (2021), in a psychometric study involving 300 students, evaluated the validity of the Conners Rating Scale in Iranian educational settings and found acceptable levels of reliability and validity, particularly when used alongside Islamic educational frameworks.

International Studies

International research has increasingly explored the integration of cognitive behavioral approaches with cultural and religious components in Islamic societies. Monawar et al. (2025), in a systematic review of 18 empirical studies conducted in Islamic countries, found that integrating Islamic teachings with cognitive behavioral therapy was effective in reducing emotional symptoms, although most studies focused on adults rather than children with ADHD.

In Turkey, Çınaroğlu (2024) examined the effectiveness of Islamic ally adapted cognitive behavioral therapy among children aged 8-12 with behavioral problems. Results indicated moderate effect sizes in reducing aggression and improving emotional regulation, though ADHD was not examined as a distinct diagnosis.

Kuki (2022), in a conceptual review, highlighted challenges in integrating CBT with Islamic cultural values in Muslim communities and emphasized the importance of school-based interventions and parental involvement, while noting the lack of ADHD-specific focus.

Summary and Research Gap

Despite extensive research on ADHD, several gaps remain:

ü  Limited integration of Islamic psychological teachings with structured educational interventions.

ü  Novel application of the Contradiction Table Model within action research for ADHD management.

ü  Insufficient attention to intervention sustainability, stakeholder feedback, and alignment with national educational policy.

The present study seeks to address these gaps by designing and evaluating a culturally grounded, school-based intervention integrating Islamic teachings and cognitive behavioral principles within an action research framework.

Theoretical Foundations of the Study with an Integrative Approach to Islamic Psychology and Cognitive Behavioral Therapy

The present study is grounded in the integration of two theoretical approaches: the principles of Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy (CBT) and Islamic educational teachings. This integration has been designed to address, simultaneously, the psychological, behavioral, and cultural needs of children within the context of Iranian Islamic society. Contrary to common assumptions, these two approaches can be complementary at both practical and conceptual levels, provided that Islamic principles are carefully considered in the design and implementation of the intervention.

Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (CBT): A Tool for Behavioral Modification

CBT is based on the principle that thoughts, emotions, and behaviors interact reciprocally. In children with Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD), this approach is applied to modify dysfunctional beliefs, enhance self-regulation skills, and reduce impulsive behaviors. Through techniques such as problem-solving training, emotional regulation, and attentional control, CBT contributes to improvements in children’s behavioral and social functioning.

Although CBT is inherently a secular and empirically driven approach, it overlaps with Islamic ethical and educational values and can be adapted within a culturally and religiously appropriate framework.

Islamic Psychology: Education from Within

Islamic psychology conceptualizes the human being as possessing a divine nature (fitrah), active intellect, and the capacity for spiritual growth. From this perspective, education is not limited to behavioral correction but aims at the elevation of the soul and the formation of moral character. Within this framework, ADHD is viewed not merely as a disorder, but as a developmental challenge in volitional growth and emotional regulation that requires educational guidance.

The Islamic educational interventions employed in this study are based on the following core concepts:

ü  Patience and self-control: As strategies for managing impulsivity and aggression, grounded in the Qur’anic verse “And be patient; and your patience is only through Allah” (An-Nahl:127) and Martyr Motahhari’s views on volitional education.

ü  Trust in God and inner calm: Strengthening reliance on God to reduce anxiety and enhance concentration, inspired by the verse “And whoever relies upon Allah then He is sufficient for him” (At-Talaq:3).

ü  Remembrance (dhikr) and Islamic mindfulness: The use of spiritual practices such as the recitation of “Ya Latif” to regulate emotions and improve attention.

ü  Order and responsibility: Teaching disciplined and responsible behavior in family and school interactions, emphasizing the prophetic saying “Cleanliness is part of faith.”

ü  Intention-setting and motivational reform: Internal education based on sincere intention and divine goal orientation, grounded in the hadith “Actions are judged by intentions.”

In the design of intervention sessions, each Islamic concept was aligned with a corresponding behavioral technique. For example, dhikr practices were paired with attentional focus training, and patience training was linked to impulse control techniques. This practical integration helps children internalize desirable behaviors from both psychological and spiritual perspectives.

Islamic concepts were delivered through activities such as Qur’anic storytelling, remembrance exercises, and group games centered on Islamic ethics. Additionally, Allameh Tabataba’i’s views on fitrah and rational education provided a philosophical foundation for this integrative framework.

Bandura’s Social Learning Theory within an Islamic Framework

Bandura’s social learning theory emphasizes that children acquire new behaviors through observation, modeling, and interaction with their environment. This principle is also emphasized in Islamic psychology, as reflected in the Qur’anic verse: “Indeed, in the Messenger of Allah you have an excellent example” (Al-Ahzab:21). In this study, teachers, parents, and peers served as behavioral role models within the school environment, and desirable behaviors were taught through social interaction.

Distinction from Purely Western Approaches

Unlike purely Western cognitive-behavioral models that focus primarily on external behavioral modification, this framework emphasizes internal reform by considering the child’s divine nature and the role of spiritual education. The goal is not only the reduction of behavioral symptoms but also the moral and spiritual development of the child.

 Summary

The integrative educational intervention developed in this study, drawing on Islamic psychology and CBT techniques, aims to enhance three key components in children with ADHD:

ü  Behavioral and emotional self-regulation.

ü  Effective social interaction with peers and adults.

ü  Improved attentional focus and reduced distractibility.

This theoretical framework provides the foundation for designing an intervention that simultaneously addresses the psychological, educational, and cultural needs of children within the Iranian educational context.

 Scientific Definition of ADHD

Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) is a neurodevelopmental disorder characterized by a persistent pattern of inattention and/or hyperactivity-impulsivity that exceeds developmental expectations and interferes with academic, social, or family functioning. According to the DSM-5, ADHD is defined as:

A persistent pattern of inattention and/or hyperactivity-impulsivity that interferes with functioning or development.

ADHD typically emerges in childhood and often persists into adulthood. Its core symptoms include:

ü  Inattention: Difficulty sustaining attention, forgetfulness, distractibility, and failure to complete tasks.

ü  Hyperactivity: Excessive activity, restlessness, and difficulty remaining seated.

ü  Impulsivity: Hasty decision-making, interrupting others, and difficulty waiting.

Global prevalence estimates suggest that approximately 5–7% of school-aged children are affected by ADHD.

 Methodology

This study is applied in purpose and employs a single-case study design. Its objective is to examine the impact of Islamic psychological teachings on reducing ADHD symptoms in a fourth-grade male elementary student.

The participant was selected based on direct observation, parental reports, and preliminary assessment by the school counselor. ADHD symptoms were assessed using the Conners’ Parent Rating Scale (Short Form), a validated and reliable instrument in Iranian studies. Daily behavioral observations, field notes, and child interviews were also used to supplement the data.

Educational Intervention

The intervention consisted of an Islamic psychology based educational program implemented over eight 45-minute sessions conducted at home over a two-week period. Session content included intention-setting, patience, trust in God, remembrance, responsibility, and behavioral modeling, delivered through Qur’anic storytelling, behavioral exercises, dialogue, and educational games.

 Ethical Considerations

Ethical principles were strictly observed, including informed parental consent, confidentiality, sensitivity to the child’s emotional needs, and avoidance of psychological pressure. The child participated voluntarily in a supportive environment.

 Data Analysis and Limitations

Data were analyzed qualitatively and through comparison of pre-test and post-test scores. Due to the case-study design, findings are not generalizable but provide in-depth insights that may inform future educational interventions.

 Analysis of Behavioral Observations

Throughout the intervention sessions, the child’s behaviors were continuously recorded and analyzed by both the researcher and the instructor. The qualitative findings derived from these observations are summarized as follows:

ü  Increase in sustained attention:    
During the initial sessions, the child was able to maintain attention for a maximum of 5-7 minutes. By the final sessions, this duration increased to more than 15 minutes. This improvement was associated with spiritual practices, daily scheduling, and Qur’anic storytelling.

ü  Reduction in impulsive behaviors:
In the early weeks, the child exhibited sudden and unreflective reactions to stimuli. In later sessions, however, the child demonstrated improved behavioral control by applying techniques such as countdown strategies, dhikr (remembrance), and positive self-talk.

ü  Improvement in ethical and social participation:   
The child showed notable progress in behaviors such as turn-taking, helping classmates, accepting simple responsibilities, and respecting classroom rules. These changes were aligned with the intervention components focused on ethical responsibility and educational games.

Feedback from Parents and Teacher

Descriptive feedback collected from the child’s parents and teacher, serving as complementary qualitative data, further supported the effectiveness of the interventions in real-life contexts:

ü  Parents’ feedback:           
Parents reported that the child became calmer at home, spent more time on studying and goal-directed play, and showed increased responsibility in personal tasks such as organizing belongings and helping with household duties. Additionally, spontaneous use of dhikr during stressful situations was observed.

ü  Teacher’s feedback:         
The teacher reported improvements in behavioral discipline, reduced disruption of others, and increased participation in group activities. The child attended classes with greater enthusiasm, showed attentiveness during opening prayers and supplications, and demonstrated more empathetic and ethical behaviors in peer interactions.

Analytical Summary

The integrated analysis of data from three credible sources Conners’ Rating Scale scores, behavioral observations, and descriptive feedback indicates that the Islamic educational interventions designed in this study were effective in reducing ADHD symptoms in the child. This effectiveness was evident across three domains:

ü  Cognitive: Increased attention and concentration.

ü  Emotional: Improved emotional regulation and reduced impulsivity.

ü  Behavioral-social: Enhanced positive interaction, responsibility, and ethical participation.

The convergence of quantitative and qualitative findings strengthens the internal validity of the results and suggests that this intervention model, grounded in Islamic teachings and educational psychology principles, may serve as an effective framework for designing educational programs for children with special needs.

Nevertheless, the interpretation of findings should consider potential observer bias and the influence of specific environmental conditions.

Future research is recommended to examine the effectiveness of this intervention model across different age groups and larger samples to enhance generalizability.

Discussion and Interpretation of Findings

This section analyzes and interprets the findings derived from the implementation of Islamic educational interventions aimed at reducing symptoms of Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD). The discussion focuses on comparisons with prior research, evaluation of intervention effectiveness, and examination of the study’s strengths and limitations.

Comparison with Previous Research:

The findings of this study are consistent with prior research in the fields of religious education, Islamic psychology, and behavioral modification in children with ADHD. Rezaei (2019) demonstrated that teaching Islamic ethical concepts such as patience, responsibility, and discipline positively influenced reductions in aggressive behavior and improvements in children’s attention. Additionally, Motahhari’s (2001) theory of rational education, emphasizing intention-setting and fitrah, provides a strong theoretical foundation for the present interventions.

International studies further support these findings. For example, Abdel Salam et al. (2018) in Egypt reported that Islamic mindfulness and spiritual education improved children’s emotional regulation. This theoretical and empirical alignment suggests that Islamic educational interventions are not only applicable within the Iranian cultural context but may also be effective across other Islamic societies.

Unlike some Western behavioral models that focus primarily on external behavioral control, the interventions in this study emphasize internalization of values, intention-setting, and spirituality, offering a more integrative and depth-oriented approach consistent with Islamic psychological principles.

Analysis of Intervention Effectiveness:

The Islamic educational interventions implemented in this study resulted in a meaningful reduction of ADHD symptoms. Data analysis revealed that:

ü  At the cognitive level, sustained attention improved, particularly through practices such as mindful prayer, daily planning, Islamic meditation, and Qur’anic storytelling, which contributed to enhanced selective attention and working memory.

ü  At the emotional level, impulsivity and sudden reactions decreased, associated with calming dhikr, positive self-talk, gratitude practices, and emotional regulation techniques.

ü  At the behavioral-social level, the child demonstrated increased ethical behavior, responsibility, positive peer interaction, classroom orderliness, and cooperation.

The alignment between quantitative data (Conners’ Rating Scale) and qualitative findings (behavioral observations and parent/teacher feedback) indicates strong internal validity. Importantly, the observed improvements extended beyond the intervention setting to the child’s home and school environments, suggesting effective transfer of learning to daily life contexts.

Strengths of the Study

ü  Islamic theoretical framework:    
The use of foundational concepts such as fitrah, intention, dhikr, responsibility, and behavioral modeling ensured cultural and religious congruence.

ü  Mixed-methods approach:             
Combining standardized questionnaires, observational records, and descriptive interviews enabled a multidimensional analysis of outcomes.

ü  Implementation in natural educational settings:     
Interventions were conducted in real classroom contexts with active involvement of parents and educators.

ü  Holistic developmental focus:       
Cognitive, emotional, ethical, social, and spiritual dimensions of child development were addressed simultaneously.

ü  Cultural adaptability:     
The Iranian-Islamic design of sessions supports potential replication in similar educational and familial contexts.

ü  Promotion of self-regulation and internalization:   
Rather than relying on punitive or reward-based strategies, the intervention emphasized self-awareness, intention-setting, and internal dialogue, contributing to the durability of behavioral change.

Limitations of the Study

ü  Single case design:            
The findings are based on one participant, limiting generalizability.

ü  Dependence on parent and teacher involvement:   
Intervention effectiveness was partially contingent on active collaboration, which may not be feasible in all contexts.

ü  Potential observer bias:  
Qualitative observations may have been influenced by the researcher’s subjective interpretations.

ü  Absence of a control group:           
The lack of comparison with non-Islamic or conventional interventions limits comparative effectiveness analysis.

Despite these limitations, the findings suggest that Islamic educational interventions can function as a culturally grounded, measurable, and multidimensional model for behavioral modification in children with special needs.

Future research is recommended to evaluate this intervention model across diverse age groups, cultural contexts, and within quasi-experimental designs incorporating control groups, to enhance generalizability and comparative validity.

 Disclosure Statement

No potential conflict of interest reported by the authors.

 Funding

This research did not receive any specific grant from funding agencies in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors.

 Authors' Contributions

All authors contributed to data analysis, drafting, and revising of the paper and agreed to be responsible for all the aspects of this work.